Philosophical Analysis

1. Define Philosophical Analysis

Philosophical analysis focuses on breaking down arguments, concepts, and assumptions to examine their meaning, structure, and implications. At its core, it asks:

• What is the argument trying to say? (Clarification)
• How does the argument work? (Logical structure)
• Is the argument strong or weak? Why? (Evaluation)

2. Practical Exercises to Build Analysis Skills

A. Choose Short Passages for Practice

Start with small sections of texts you’re familiar with, such as On Liberty or Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Alternatively, use metaphysics texts or questions to prepare for next semester. Some examples:

• What is substance? (Spinoza, Aristotle)
• Is time real or merely a concept? (Kant, McTaggart)

B. Break Down the Passage in Steps

For each passage or idea, answer the following:

1. What does it mean?
   • Paraphrase it in your own words. Be precise and concise.
2. What are the key claims or assumptions?
   • Identify hidden premises and assumptions in the argument.
3. How is the argument structured?
   • Break it into premises and conclusions. Is it deductive? Inductive? Analogical?
4. What are the strengths and weaknesses?
   • Analyze its validity, soundness, or gaps in reasoning. Does it rely on questionable assumptions?
5. What objections or counterexamples could challenge it?
   • Consider alternative viewpoints or hypothetical cases.

3. Write Mini-Analyses to Practice

• Take a single claim from a philosopher and write a short, 300-word analysis following the above steps.
• Example prompt: “Mill argues that individuals know themselves better than the state does. Is this always true? Are there exceptions?”

You can also use classic metaphysics questions:

• Does the mind exist independently of the body?
• What is the nature of identity over time?

4. Compare Your Work to Examples of Strong Analysis

• Look at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy or other academic articles for examples of rigorous analysis.
• Observe how authors identify assumptions, critique arguments, and explore implications.

5. Reflect on Your Previous Papers

Take one of the papers you submitted this semester and rewrite a section to include deeper analysis.

• Where could you have identified an assumption?
• Could you have explored objections or counterarguments more?
• How might you strengthen your evaluation of a thinker’s argument?

6. Build the Habit of Asking Key Questions

To train your brain for deeper analysis, keep these questions handy as you read or write:

• Clarification:
  • What does the author mean? Are there ambiguous terms?
• Strength of Argument:
  • Are the premises true? Does the conclusion logically follow?
• Evaluation:
  • Does this argument align with lived experience?
  • What counterarguments might challenge it?
  • Why does this matter?

7. Supplement with Resources

• Books:

  • How to Read a Book by Mortimer Adler (for close reading strategies).
  • A Rulebook for Arguments by Anthony Weston (on clear argumentation).
  • The Philosopher’s Toolkit by Julian Baggini and Peter S. Fosl.

• Videos/Podcasts:

  • Look for philosophy lectures on YouTube (Harvard, Yale, etc.).
  • Listen to podcasts like Philosophize This! and pause episodes to reflect critically on their arguments.

8. Plan Your Practice

• Week 1: Focus on short passages and paraphrasing key arguments.
• Week 2: Write mini-analyses and explore counterarguments.
• Week 3: Rewrite sections of old papers, compare your analyses to examples, and reflect on growth.

Week 1: Focus on Paraphrasing and Identifying Claims

Passage 1: Aristotle – On Substance

"Substance, in the truest and primary and most definite sense of the word, is that which is neither predicated of a subject nor present in a subject; for instance, the individual man or horse."
— Metaphysics, Book Zeta

Prompt

1. Paraphrase Aristotle’s definition of substance in your own words.
2. Identify his key claim: What makes substance “primary”?
3. Can you think of modern examples that might challenge Aristotle’s definition? For example: Could software or data be considered substances?

Passage 2: Descartes – On the Mind and Body

"I am therefore precisely nothing but a thinking thing; that is, a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason—words of whose meanings I was previously ignorant. Yet I am a true thing, and truly existing; but what kind of a thing? I have said it already: a thinking thing."
— Meditations on First Philosophy

Prompt

1. Paraphrase Descartes’s argument for the self as a “thinking thing.”
2. What assumptions is Descartes making about the nature of identity and existence?
3. What objections might arise? For instance, is it possible to exist without thinking?

Passage 3: Leibniz – Identity of Indiscernibles

"There cannot be two substances that are perfectly alike, differing only in number."
— Discourse on Metaphysics

Prompt

1. Paraphrase Leibniz’s claim about identity in your own words.
2. What premises or assumptions does this claim rely on?
3. Can you think of counterexamples? Consider quantum particles or identical twins: Does Leibniz’s argument still hold?

Week 2: Analyzing Structure and Weaknesses

Passage 4: Kant – On Space and Time

"Space is not an empirical concept that has been derived from external experiences. [...] It is a necessary representation, a priori, which underlies all external intuitions."
— Critique of Pure Reason

Prompt

1. Outline Kant’s argument in steps:
   • Premises: What is he claiming about space as “a priori”?
   • Conclusion: Why is space not derived from experience?
2. Identify the strengths of Kant’s reasoning. Does it account for the universality of spatial perception?
3. Critique: How would a modern empiricist or neuroscientist respond to Kant’s claim?

Passage 5: Spinoza – Substance Monism

"Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can be or be conceived without God."
— Ethics, Part I

Prompt

1. Restate Spinoza’s claim: What does it mean for everything to be “in God”?
2. Break down the logical structure: What premises lead Spinoza to substance monism?
3. Evaluate: Does Spinoza’s idea leave room for individual agency or free will?

Passage 6: Hume – On Causation

"All reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on the relation of Cause and Effect. [...] But our idea of this relation is deriv’d entirely from experience, when we find that particular objects are constantly conjoin’d with each other."
— An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

Prompt

1. Clarify Hume’s critique of causation in your own words.
2. Analyze the assumptions: What role does experience play in establishing causal relations?
3. Challenge Hume: Are there counterexamples where causality seems intuitive (e.g., natural laws)?

Week 3: Full Mini-Analyses and Counterarguments

Passage 7: McTaggart – The Unreality of Time

"If we consider the A series—the series of past, present, and future—time involves a contradiction. The distinctions of past, present, and future are essential to time, but each event must have all three characteristics, which is impossible."
— The Unreality of Time

Prompt

1. Restate McTaggart’s argument for why time is “unreal.”
2. Analyze the logic:
   • What is the contradiction McTaggart claims exists?
   • How does he conclude that time cannot exist?
3. Evaluate:
   • Is McTaggart’s argument compelling?
   • Consider alternative conceptions of time, such as the B-theory (time as a series of relations).

Passage 8: Sartre – Existence Precedes Essence

"Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards."
— Existentialism is a Humanism

Prompt

1. Paraphrase Sartre’s claim about existence and essence.
2. What are the implications of this idea for human freedom and responsibility?
3. Critique: How would a determinist challenge Sartre’s view?

Passage 9: Parfit – On Personal Identity

"It is not true that our continued existence always matters. What does matter is not identity, but psychological connectedness."
— Reasons and Persons

Prompt

1. Explain Parfit’s claim about identity and psychological connectedness.
2. Break down the argument:
   • How does Parfit redefine what “matters” for personal identity?
3. Explore objections: Does Parfit’s argument conflict with everyday intuitions about selfhood and continuity?

Suggestions for Completing the Prompts

• Aim for 1-2 mini-analyses per week, building up from focused paraphrasing to deeper critiques.
• Compare your work to resources like the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy or secondary commentaries on the thinkers.
• For any confusing sections, jot down questions or write out where you get stuck—this trains deeper engagement.

Here’s a tailored list of reading recommendations and resources to help you strengthen your analysis skills, particularly for the passages I provided earlier. I’ve grouped the materials into accessible introductions, deeper dives, and resources for practicing philosophical analysis.

General Resources for Analysis Practice

1. Books on Argumentation and Philosophical Analysis

   • A Rulebook for Arguments by Anthony Weston
     A concise guide to constructing and analyzing arguments. Perfect for beginners and advanced readers alike.
   • The Philosopher’s Toolkit: A Compendium of Philosophical Concepts and Methods by Julian Baggini and Peter Fosl
     A fantastic reference for key methods in analysis, argumentation, and philosophical inquiry.

2. Guides to Philosophical Writing

   • Writing Philosophy: A Student's Guide to Writing Philosophy Essays by Lewis Vaughn
     This book offers step-by-step instructions on how to clarify arguments, identify assumptions, and craft objections.
   • How to Read a Book by Mortimer Adler
     A classic guide for deep reading, with a focus on analyzing arguments and identifying key concepts.

3. Web Resources

   • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP): plato.stanford.edu
     A rigorous and free resource for clear explanations of philosophical concepts and thinkers.
   • Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP): iep.utm.edu
     Excellent for summaries of complex ideas in accessible language.
   • PhilPapers: philpapers.org
     Use it to search for academic papers on specific philosophers or ideas you’re working through.

4. YouTube Channels and Podcasts

   • Philosophize This!: Steven West breaks down philosophers’ ideas and arguments in an approachable way.
   • Academy of Ideas: Short, clear videos covering philosophers, concepts, and critiques.
   • Overthink: A podcast exploring classic and contemporary philosophy in conversation format.
   • Gregory B. Sadler's Philosophy Channel: Detailed video analyses of philosophical texts.

Focused Reading Recommendations

1. Aristotle – Substance and Metaphysics

• Introductory:
  • Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction by Jonathan Barnes
    Accessible and concise, great for getting oriented with Aristotle’s key ideas.
• Deeper Dive:
  • Aristotle’s Metaphysics (Book Z and Lambda are key)
    Use Richard Hope’s or Hippocrates Apostle’s translations for clarity.
• Analysis Resource:
  • SEP entry: Aristotle's Metaphysics
    Read here

2. Descartes – Mind-Body Dualism

• Introductory:
  • Descartes: A Very Short Introduction by Tom Sorell
• Deeper Dive:
  • Meditations on First Philosophy (translated by Donald Cress)
    Focus on the second meditation for his “thinking thing” argument.
• Analysis Resource:
  • SEP entry: Descartes’ Theory of Mind
    Read here

3. Leibniz – Identity of Indiscernibles

• Introductory:
  • Leibniz: A Very Short Introduction by Maria Rosa Antognazza
• Deeper Dive:
  • Discourse on Metaphysics (translated by Peter Loptson)
• Analysis Resource:
  • SEP entry: Leibniz’s Metaphysics
    Read here

4. Kant – Space and Time

• Introductory:
  • Kant: A Very Short Introduction by Roger Scruton
• Deeper Dive:
  • Critique of Pure Reason (A section: Transcendental Aesthetic – focus on space and time)
    Translation by Paul Guyer and Allen Wood is modern and clear.
• Analysis Resource:
  • SEP entry: Kant’s Views on Space and Time
    Read here

5. Spinoza – Substance Monism

• Introductory:
  • Spinoza: A Very Short Introduction by Roger Scruton
• Deeper Dive:
  • Ethics (translated by Edwin Curley)
    Focus on Part I for substance monism.
• Analysis Resource:
  • SEP entry: Spinoza’s Metaphysics
    Read here

6. Hume – Causation

• Introductory:
  • Hume: A Very Short Introduction by A.J. Ayer
• Deeper Dive:
  • An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
    Focus on Section IV and VII for causation.
• Analysis Resource:
  • SEP entry: Hume on Causation
    Read here

7. McTaggart – The Unreality of Time

• Introductory:
  • SEP summary: McTaggart’s Argument on Time
    Read here
• Deeper Dive:
  • McTaggart’s original article: The Unreality of Time
    Accessible in most anthologies on metaphysics.

8. Sartre – Existence Precedes Essence

• Introductory:
  • Existentialism is a Humanism (short and accessible lecture text)
• Deeper Dive:
  • Being and Nothingness (translated by Hazel Barnes) – for deeper existentialist arguments.
• Analysis Resource:
  • SEP entry: Sartre’s Existentialism
    Read here

9. Parfit – Personal Identity

• Introductory:
  • SEP entry: Personal Identity
    Read here
• Deeper Dive:
  • Reasons and Persons – Focus on Part III.

Optional: Build a Daily Practice

• Pick one passage a day (or two for longer days).
• Spend 30-45 minutes answering the prompts.
• Reflect on your progress by summarizing key lessons from your analysis at the end of each week.